高清PDF《Code of Practice for the Structural Use of Steel 》2011 (2021 Edition)

1 GENERAL............................................................................................................................1
1.1 SCOPE.................................................................................................................................1
1.2 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY........................................................................................................2
1.2.1 Aims of structural design .............................................................................................. 2
1.2.2 Design responsibility and assumptions ......................................................................... 2
1.2.3 Structural system, integrity and robustness................................................................... 3
1.2.4 Overall stability............................................................................................................. 3
1.2.5 Limit state design ......................................................................................................... 3
1.2.6 Economy...................................................................................................................... 3
1.2.7 Design working life ....................................................................................................... 3
1.3 REFERENCES .....................................................................................................................4
1.4 GLOSSARY OF TERMS AND DEFINITIONS.......................................................................4
1.4.1 General definitions ....................................................................................................... 4
1.4.2 Structural element definitions........................................................................................ 5
1.4.3 Structural behaviour definitions..................................................................................... 6
1.4.4 Material behaviour definitions ....................................................................................... 7
1.4.5 Section type definitions................................................................................................. 7
1.4.6 Connection definitions .................................................................................................. 8
1.5 MAJOR SYMBOLS ..............................................................................................................8

2 LIMIT STATE DESIGN PHILOSOPHY................................................................................17
2.1 GENERAL.......................................................................................................................... 17
2.1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 17
2.1.2 Simple design ............................................................................................................ 17
2.1.3 Continuous design...................................................................................................... 17
2.1.4 Semi-continuous design ............................................................................................. 17
2.1.5 Design justification by tests ........................................................................................ 17
2.1.6 Performance-based design......................................................................................... 17
2.1.7 Calculation accuracy .................................................................................................. 18
2.1.8 Foundation design...................................................................................................... 18
2.2 LIMIT STATE PHILOSOPHY.............................................................................................. 18
2.3 ULTIMATE LIMIT STATES (ULS)....................................................................................... 19
2.3.1 Limit state of strength ................................................................................................. 19
2.3.2 Stability limit states..................................................................................................... 19
2.3.3 Fatigue....................................................................................................................... 20
2.3.4 Structural integrity and robustness.............................................................................. 23
2.3.5 Brittle fracture............................................................................................................. 26
2.4 SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATES (SLS)............................................................................26
2.4.1 Serviceability loads..................................................................................................... 26
2.5 LOADING........................................................................................................................... 26
2.5.1 General...................................................................................................................... 26
2.5.2 Dead and imposed loading......................................................................................... 26
2.5.3 Wind loading .............................................................................................................. 26
2.5.4 Loads from earth and water pressure ......................................................................... 27
2.5.5 Load effects from differential settlement of foundations............................................... 27
2.5.6 Load effects from temperature change ....................................................................... 27
2.5.7 Loads from cranes...................................................................................................... 27
2.5.8 Notional horizontal forces ........................................................................................... 28
2.5.9 Exceptional loads and loads on key elements............................................................. 29
2.5.10 Loads during construction........................................................................................... 29
2.5.11 Loads on temporary works in construction.................................................................. 29
3 MATERIALS....................................................................................................................... 30
3.1 STRUCTURAL STEEL .......................................................................................................30
3.1.1 General...................................................................................................................... 30
3.1.2 Design strength for normal strength steels.................................................................. 31
3.1.3 Design strength for high strength steels...................................................................... 36
3.1.4 Uncertified steel ......................................................................................................... 36
3.1.5 Through thickness properties...................................................................................... 36
3.1.6 Other properties ......................................................................................................... 36
3.2 PREVENTION OF BRITTLE FRACTURE...........................................................................37
3.3 BOLTS ............................................................................................................................... 39
3.3.1 Normal bolts............................................................................................................... 39
3.3.2 High strength friction grip or preloaded bolts............................................................... 39
3.4 WELDING CONSUMABLES .............................................................................................. 39
3.5 STEEL CASTINGS AND FORGINGS................................................................................. 39
3.6 MATERIALS FOR GROUTING OF BASEPLATES............................................................. 39
3.7 MATERIALS FOR COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION............................................................ 39
3.7.1 Concrete .................................................................................................................... 39
3.7.2 Reinforcement............................................................................................................ 39
3.7.3 Profiled steel sheets................................................................................................... 40
3.7.4 Shear studs................................................................................................................ 40
3.8 COLD-FORMED STEEL MATERIAL PROPERTIES........................................................... 40
3.8.1 Mechanical properties ................................................................................................ 40
4 LOAD FACTORS AND MATERIAL FACTORS ..................................................................43
4.1 PARTIAL SAFETY FACTORS............................................................................................ 43
4.2 MATERIAL FACTORS .......................................................................................................43
4.2.1 Steel plates and sections............................................................................................ 43
4.2.2 Bolts........................................................................................................................... 44
4.2.3 Reinforcement and concrete in composite design....................................................... 44
4.2.4 Grout for base plates and wall plates.......................................................................... 44
4.3 LOAD FACTORS AND COMBINATIONS...........................................................................44
4.3.1 Load combinations for normal ultimate limit state........................................................ 44
4.3.2 Load combinations for overhead traveling cranes ....................................................... 45
4.3.3 Load combinations for building assessment................................................................ 45
4.3.4 Load combinations for temporary works in construction .............................................. 45
4.3.5 Load combinations for exceptional events .................................................................. 45
4.3.6 Summary of partial load factors .................................................................................. 46
4.3.7 Load combinations for serviceability limit states.......................................................... 46
5 SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATES...................................................................................... 47
5.1 GERERAL.......................................................................................................................... 47
5.2 DEFLECTION..................................................................................................................... 47
5.3 WIND-INDUCED VIBRATION............................................................................................. 48
5.3.1 Wind sensitive buildings and structures ...................................................................... 48
5.3.2 Serviceability limit state .............................................................................................. 48
5.3.3 Dynamic structural characteristics .............................................................................. 48
5.3.4 Serviceability criteria for tall buildings ......................................................................... 48
5.3.5 Serviceability criteria for communication and broadcasting towers .............................. 49
5.3.6 Reduction of wind-induced dynamic response ............................................................ 49
5.4 HUMAN INDUCED FLOOR VIBRATION ............................................................................49
5.5 DURABILITY...................................................................................................................... 50
5.5.1 General...................................................................................................................... 50
5.5.2 Types of protection against corrosion ......................................................................... 50
5.5.3 Corrosion from residual stresses ................................................................................ 52
6 DESIGN METHODS AND ANALYSIS ................................................................................53
6.1 METHODS OF ANALYSIS .................................................................................................53
6.2 ANALYSIS MODELS AND ASSUMPTIONS.......................................................................54
6.3 FRAME CLASSIFICATION.................................................................................................54
6.3.1 General...................................................................................................................... 54
6.3.2 Elastic critical load factor............................................................................................ 54
6.3.3 Non-sway frames ....................................................................................................... 55
6.3.4 Sway frames .............................................................................................................. 55
6.3.5 Sway ultra-sensitive frames........................................................................................ 55
6.4 IMPERFECTIONS ..............................................................................................................55
6.4.1 General...................................................................................................................... 55
6.4.2 Frame imperfections................................................................................................... 56
6.4.3 Member imperfections................................................................................................ 56
6.4.4 Elastic critical mode.................................................................................................... 57
6.5 SIMPLE DESIGN................................................................................................................57
6.6 FIRST-ORDER LINEAR ELASTIC ANALYSIS (FIRST-ORDER INDIRECT
ANALYSIS) ........................................................................................................................ 57
6.6.1 General...................................................................................................................... 57
6.6.2 Moment amplification for sway frames........................................................................ 57
6.6.3 Effective length for sway and non-sway frames........................................................... 58
6.6.4 Maximum slenderness ratio........................................................................................ 60
6.7 SECOND-ORDER P--ONLY ELASTIC ANALYSIS (SECOND-ORDER INDIRECT
ANALYSIS) ........................................................................................................................ 60
6.7.1 General...................................................................................................................... 60
6.7.2 Method of analysis ..................................................................................................... 60
6.7.3 Applications and limitations ........................................................................................ 60
6.8 SECOND-ORDER P-- ELASTIC ANALYSIS (SECOND-ORDER DIRECT
ANALYSIS) ........................................................................................................................ 61
6.8.1 General...................................................................................................................... 61
6.8.2 Method of analysis ..................................................................................................... 61
6.8.3 Applications and limitations ........................................................................................ 61
6.9 ADVANCED ANALYSIS.....................................................................................................62
6.9.1 General...................................................................................................................... 62
6.9.2 Method of analysis ..................................................................................................... 62
6.9.3 Applications and limitations ........................................................................................ 62
6.10 BRACING MEMBERS........................................................................................................62
6.11 CONNECTION CLASSIFICATION IN ANALYSIS............................................................... 63
6.11.1 Pinned connections .................................................................................................... 63
6.11.2 Rigid connections....................................................................................................... 63
6.11.3 Semi-rigid connections ............................................................................................... 63
7 SECTION CLASSIFICATION.............................................................................................. 64
7.1 GENERAL.......................................................................................................................... 64
7.2 CLASSIFICATION..............................................................................................................65
7.3 STRESS RATIOS FOR CLASSIFICATION.........................................................................69
7.4 FLANGES OF COMPOUND I- OR H-SECTIONS ............................................................... 70
7.5 EFFECTIVE PLASTIC MODULUS...................................................................................... 71
7.5.1 General...................................................................................................................... 71
7.5.2 I- or H-sections with equal flanges.............................................................................. 71
7.5.3 Rectangular hollow sections ....................................................................................... 71
7.5.4 Circular hollow sections.............................................................................................. 72
7.6 EFFECTIVE WIDTH METHOD FOR SLENDER CROSS-SECTIONS..................................72
7.7 EFFECTIVE STRESS METHOD FOR SLENDER CROSS-SECTIONS............................... 72
7.8 SHIFT OF THE CENTROID OF THE EFFECTIVE CROSS-SECTION.................................73
8 DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL MEMBERS.............................................................................75
8.1 GENERAL.......................................................................................................................... 75
8.2 RESTRAINED BEAMS.......................................................................................................75
8.2.1 Shear capacity ........................................................................................................... 75
8.2.2 Moment capacity........................................................................................................ 76
8.2.3 Beams with web openings.......................................................................................... 77
8.2.4 Castellated beams...................................................................................................... 78
8.3 LATERAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING OF BEAMS............................................................... 79
8.3.1 Intermediate and end lateral restraints........................................................................ 79
8.3.2 Torsional restraint....................................................................................................... 80
8.3.3 Normal and destabilizing loads ................................................................................... 80
8.3.4 Effective length for lateral-torsional buckling ............................................................... 80
8.3.5 Moment resistance to lateral-torsional buckling........................................................... 82
8.4 PLATE GIRDERS...............................................................................................................89
8.4.1 Design strength.......................................................................................................... 89
8.4.2 Minimum web thickness for serviceability.................................................................... 89
8.4.3 Minimum web thickness to avoid compression flange buckling.................................... 89
8.4.4 Moment capacity of restrained girders ........................................................................ 89
8.4.5 Effects of axial force................................................................................................... 90
8.4.6 Shear buckling resistance........................................................................................... 90
8.4.7 Intermediate transverse web stiffeners ....................................................................... 90
8.4.8 End anchorage......................................................................................................... 105
8.4.9 Panels with openings ............................................................................................... 105
8.4.10 Web capacity and stiffeners design .......................................................................... 105
8.4.11 Other types of stiffeners ........................................................................................... 108
8.4.12 Connections between web stiffeners and webs......................................................... 108
8.4.13 Connections between web stiffeners and flanges...................................................... 108
8.5 BUCKLING RESISTANCE MOMENT FOR SINGLE ANGLE MEMBERS......................... 109
8.6 TENSION MEMBERS.......................................................................................................109
8.6.1 Tension capacity ...................................................................................................... 109
8.6.2 Members with eccentric connections ........................................................................ 109
8.6.3 Single and double angle, channel and T-sections ..................................................... 109
8.6.4 Double angle, channel and T-sections with intermediate connections ....................... 110
8.7 COMPRESSION MEMBERS ............................................................................................ 110
8.7.1 Segment length........................................................................................................ 110
8.7.2 Effective length in general ........................................................................................ 110
8.7.3 Restraints................................................................................................................. 111
8.7.4 Slenderness ............................................................................................................. 111
8.7.5 Compression resistance........................................................................................... 111
8.7.6 Compressive strength............................................................................................... 112
8.7.7 Eccentric connections............................................................................................... 127
8.7.8 Simple construction.................................................................................................. 127
8.7.9 Effective length of sections in triangulated structures and trusses ............................. 127
8.8 TENSION MEMBERS UNDER COMBINED AXIAL FORCE AND MOMENTS.................. 128
8.9 COMPRESSION MEMBERS UNDER COMBINED AXIAL FORCE AND
MOMOENTS..................................................................................................................... 129
8.9.1 Cross-section capacity ............................................................................................. 129
8.9.2 Member buckling resistance..................................................................................... 129
8.10 TORSIONAL AND FLEXURAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING OF COMPRESSION
MEMBERS ....................................................................................................................... 132
8.11 PORTAL FRAMES...........................................................................................................132
8.11.1 General.................................................................................................................... 132
8.11.2 Elastic design........................................................................................................... 132
8.11.3 Plastic design........................................................................................................... 132
8.11.4 In-plane stability ....................................................................................................... 132
8.11.5 Out-of-plane stability ................................................................................................ 135
8.12 LACED AND BATTENED STRUTS.................................................................................. 139
8.12.1 Laced struts ............................................................................................................. 139
8.12.2 Battened struts......................................................................................................... 139
Appendix 8.1 ............................................................................................................................. 141
Appendix 8.2 ............................................................................................................................. 142
Appendix 8.3 ............................................................................................................................. 143
Appendix 8.4 ............................................................................................................................. 144
9 CONNECTIONS ...............................................................................................................145
9.1 GENERAL........................................................................................................................ 145
9.2 WELDED CONNECTIONS ............................................................................................... 146
9.2.1 Through-thickness tension........................................................................................ 146
9.2.2 Types of welds ......................................................................................................... 146
9.2.3 Weldability and electrodes........................................................................................ 146
9.2.4 Welded connections to unstiffened flanges ............................................................... 146
9.2.5 Strength of welds ..................................................................................................... 147
9.3 BOLTED CONNECTIONS................................................................................................ 154
9.3.1 Bolt spacing ............................................................................................................. 154
9.3.2 End and edge distances ........................................................................................... 154
9.3.3 Hole dimensions....................................................................................................... 155
9.3.4 Sectional area of connected parts............................................................................. 155
9.3.5 Block shear.............................................................................................................. 157
9.3.6 Design strength of bolts under shear and bearing..................................................... 157
9.3.7 Design strength of bolts in tension............................................................................ 161
9.3.8 Combined shear and tension.................................................................................... 162
9.3.9 Bolts combined with welds........................................................................................ 162
9.3.10 Pin connections........................................................................................................ 162
9.3.11 Connections for hollow sections of lattice girders...................................................... 164
9.4 BASEPLATE AND ANCHOR CONSTRUCTION .............................................................. 164
9.4.1 Column base plates.................................................................................................. 164
9.4.2 Anchor bolts for base plates, wall plates and hangers............................................... 165
9.5 STEEL CASTINGS AND FORGINGS...............................................................................167
10 COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION ....................................................................................... 168
10.1 MATERIALS..................................................................................................................... 168
10.1.1 Structural steel ......................................................................................................... 168
10.1.2 Concrete .................................................................................................................. 168
10.1.3 Reinforcement.......................................................................................................... 169
10.1.4 Shear connectors ..................................................................................................... 169
10.1.5 Profiled steel sheets................................................................................................. 169
10.2 COMPOSITE BEAMS.......................................................................................................170
10.2.1 General.................................................................................................................... 170
10.2.2 Analysis of internal forces and moments................................................................... 172
10.2.3 Establishment of composite cross-sections............................................................... 174
10.2.4 Classification of composite cross-sections................................................................ 175
10.2.5 Section capacities and properties of composite cross-sections ................................. 177
10.2.6 Ultimate limit state design......................................................................................... 180
10.2.7 Serviceability limit state design................................................................................. 182
10.3 SHEAR CONNECTION.....................................................................................................186
10.3.1 General.................................................................................................................... 186
10.3.2 Design resistance of shear connectors ..................................................................... 186
10.3.3 Provision of shear connectors................................................................................... 189
10.3.4 Detailing of shear connectors ................................................................................... 191
10.3.5 Transverse reinforcement......................................................................................... 192
10.4 COMPOSITE SLABS WITH PROFILED STEEL SHEETS................................................196
10.4.1 General.................................................................................................................... 196
10.4.2 Form of construction................................................................................................. 196
10.4.3 Limit state design ..................................................................................................... 197
10.4.4 Design of profiled steel sheets in construction stage................................................. 199
10.4.5 Design of composite slabs in composite stage.......................................................... 201
10.4.6 Detailing provisions .................................................................................................. 208
10.4.7 Constructional details ............................................................................................... 210
10.5 COMPOSITE COLUMNS..................................................................................................212
10.5.1 General.................................................................................................................... 212
10.5.2 General method of design ........................................................................................ 213
10.5.3 Simplified method of design...................................................................................... 214
10.5.4 Shear connection and load introduction .................................................................... 225
10.5.5 Detailing provisions .................................................................................................. 228
11 DESIGN OF COLD-FORMED STEEL OPEN SECTIONS, SHEET PROFILES,
HOLLOW SECTIONS AND SHEET PILE SECTIONS ...................................................... 230
11.1 GENERAL DESIGN OF OPEN SECTIONS AND SHEET PROFILES............................... 230
11.2 MATERIAL PROPERTIES................................................................................................ 231
11.2.1 Physical properties................................................................................................... 231
11.2.2 Mechanical properties .............................................................................................. 231
11.3 SECTION PROPERTIES ..................................................................................................232
11.3.1 Gross section properties........................................................................................... 232
11.3.2 Effective section properties under tension................................................................. 233
11.3.3 Effective section properties under compression and bending .................................... 233
11.3.4 Local buckling .......................................................................................................... 233
11.3.5 Flange curling .......................................................................................................... 239
11.4 MEMBERS UNDER LATERAL LOADS............................................................................240
11.4.1 General.................................................................................................................... 240
11.4.2 Moment capacity...................................................................................................... 240
11.4.3 Shear capacity ......................................................................................................... 241
11.4.4 Combined bending and shear................................................................................... 242
11.4.5 Web crushing capacity ............................................................................................. 242
11.4.6 Combined bending and web crushing....................................................................... 246
11.4.7 Lateral buckling........................................................................................................ 247
11.4.8 Calculation of deflection ........................................................................................... 250
11.4.9 Effects of torsion ...................................................................................................... 251
11.5 MEMBERS UNDER AXIAL LOADS ................................................................................. 251
11.5.1 Members under tension............................................................................................ 251
11.5.2 Members under compression ................................................................................... 253
11.5.3 Flexural buckling ...................................................................................................... 253
11.5.4 Flexural-torsional buckling........................................................................................ 256
11.5.5 Combined compression and bending........................................................................ 257
11.6 CONNECTIONS ...............................................................................................................258
11.6.1 General recommendations ....................................................................................... 258
11.6.2 Fastenings with bolts................................................................................................ 258
11.6.3 Fastenings with screws and blind rivets .................................................................... 260
11.6.4 Interconnections in compound members................................................................... 261
11.6.5 Bolted moment connections of compound members................................................. 263
11.7 DESIGN FOR HOLLOW SECTIONS ................................................................................265
11.7.1 General design for hollow sections ........................................................................... 265
11.7.2 Material properties.................................................................................................... 265
11.7.3 Mechanical properties .............................................................................................. 265
11.7.4 Control of external corner profile............................................................................... 265
11.7.5 Welding at cold-formed zones .................................................................................. 266
11.7.6 Cold formed section properties under loading........................................................... 266
11.7.7 Calculation of deflection ........................................................................................... 266
11.7.8 Connections ............................................................................................................. 266
11.8 DESIGN FOR COLD-FORMED SHEET PILE SECTIONS ................................................267
11.8.1 General design for sheet pile sections ...................................................................... 267
11.8.2 Material properties.................................................................................................... 267
11.8.3 Mechanical properties .............................................................................................. 267
11.8.4 Minimum inside radii for cold-formed sheet piles....................................................... 267
11.8.5 Welding at cold-formed zones of cold-formed sheet piles.......................................... 268
11.8.6 Cold-formed section properties under loading........................................................... 268
11.8.7 Calculation of deflection ........................................................................................... 268
12 FIRE RESISTANT DESIGN .............................................................................................. 269
12.1 DESIGN PRINCIPLES......................................................................................................269
12.1.1 Basic requirements of fire resistance for a structure.................................................. 269
12.1.2 Fire exposure........................................................................................................... 269
12.1.3 Fire limit states......................................................................................................... 270
12.1.4 Physical and mechanical properties at elevated temperatures .................................. 270
12.1.5 Material factors and load factors............................................................................... 273
12.2 FIRE RESISTANCE DERIVED FROM STANDARD FIRE TESTS.....................................274
12.2.1 Fire resistances of structural members ..................................................................... 274
12.2.2 Failure criteria for standard fire tests......................................................................... 274
12.3 FIRE RESISTANCE DERIVED FROM LIMITING TEMPERATURE METHOD................... 275
12.4 FIRE RESISTANCE DERIVED FROM PERFORMANCE-BASED DESIGN
METHODS........................................................................................................................ 276
12.4.1 Basis of analysis ...................................................................................................... 276
12.4.2 Thermal response .................................................................................................... 276
12.4.3 Mechanical response ............................................................................................... 276
12.4.4 Validation of performance-based design methods..................................................... 277
12.4.5 Simplified calculation methods.................................................................................. 277
12.5 PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS................................................................................. 277
13 PERFORMANCE-BASED DESIGN GUIDANCE FOR PARTICULAR TYPES OF
STRUCTURES, INCLUDING GUIDANCE ON GENERAL MAINTENANCE OF
STEEL STRUCTURES.....................................................................................................278
13.1 HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS...................................................................................................278
13.1.1 Structural systems for high-rise buildings.................................................................. 278
13.1.2 Stability issues for high-rise buildings ....................................................................... 278
13.1.3 Considerations for particular details.......................................................................... 278
13.1.4 Considerations for design against extreme events.................................................... 279
13.1.5 Wind engineering for high-rise buildings ................................................................... 279
13.2 GUIDANCE ON DESIGN OF TRANSMISSION TOWERS, MASTS AND CHIMNEYS.......280
13.2.1 Structural systems for transmission towers, masts and chimneys.............................. 280
13.2.2 Overall stability of towers, masts and chimneys ........................................................ 280
13.2.3 Particular details....................................................................................................... 281
13.2.4 Considerations for design against extreme events.................................................... 281
13.2.5 Serviceability issues ................................................................................................. 281
13.2.6 Design issues for steel chimneys.............................................................................. 281
13.2.7 Construction and corrosion protection of steel chimneys........................................... 282
13.2.8 Wind-excited vibrations of circular chimneys............................................................. 282
13.3 GLASS AND FAÇADE SUPPORTING STRUCTURES..................................................... 283
13.3.1 General.................................................................................................................... 283
13.3.2 Deflection limit.......................................................................................................... 283
13.3.3 Requirements........................................................................................................... 283
13.3.4 Loadings and actions ............................................................................................... 284
13.3.5 Tensioning structural systems .................................................................................. 284
13.4 TEMPORARY WORKS IN CONSTRUCTION ...................................................................285
13.4.1 Design philosophy.................................................................................................... 285
13.4.2 Second-order effects................................................................................................ 286
13.4.3 Out-of-plumbness..................................................................................................... 286
13.4.4 Fitness tolerance...................................................................................................... 286
13.4.5 Member imperfections.............................................................................................. 286
13.4.6 Support settlements and flexible supports................................................................. 286
13.4.7 Over-turning............................................................................................................. 286
13.4.8 Tolerance and clearance .......................................................................................... 287
13.4.9 New and used systems ............................................................................................ 287
13.4.10 Module testing.......................................................................................................... 287
13.5 LONG SPAN STRUCTURES............................................................................................ 288
13.5.1 Systems for long span structures.............................................................................. 288
13.5.2 Overall stability of long span structures..................................................................... 288
13.5.3 Particular details....................................................................................................... 288
13.5.4 Considerations for design against extreme events.................................................... 288
13.5.5 Serviceability issues ................................................................................................. 288
13.6 FOOTBRIDGES................................................................................................................289
13.6.1 Design philosophy.................................................................................................... 289
13.6.2 Loads....................................................................................................................... 289
13.6.3 Design for strength, deflection and fatigue................................................................ 289
13.6.4 Vibration................................................................................................................... 291
13.6.5 Bearing design for footbridges.................................................................................. 292
13.7 DESIGN LOADS FROM OVERHEAD RUNWAY CRANES, TOWER AND DERRICK
CRANES AND MOBILE CRANES.................................................................................... 292
13.7.1 Types and classifications of static cranes ................................................................. 292
13.7.2 Design issues for crane support structures ............................................................... 292
13.7.3 Loading from cranes................................................................................................. 292
13.8 GUIDANCE ON MAINTENANCE OF STEEL STRUCTURES...........................................294
13.8.1 General.................................................................................................................... 294
13.8.2 Consideration of maintenance in the original design ................................................. 294
13.8.3 Maintenance of existing structures............................................................................ 295
13.8.4 Health and safety issues on maintenance................................................................. 295
14 FABRICATION AND ERECTION...................................................................................... 296
14.1 DIMENSIONS AND TOLERANCES OF SECTIONS......................................................... 296
14.2 WORKMANSHIP – GENERAL ......................................................................................... 296
14.2.1 Identification............................................................................................................. 296
14.2.2 Handling................................................................................................................... 296
14.2.3 Cutting ..................................................................................................................... 296
14.2.4 Shaping and forming ................................................................................................ 296
14.2.5 Holing ...................................................................................................................... 297
14.2.6 Assembly ................................................................................................................. 298
14.2.7 Curving and straightening......................................................................................... 298
14.2.8 Inspection ................................................................................................................ 298
14.2.9 Storage .................................................................................................................... 299
14.3 WORKMANSHIP – WELDING.......................................................................................... 299
14.3.1 General.................................................................................................................... 299
14.3.2 Welder qualification.................................................................................................. 299
14.3.3 Welding procedure specifications ............................................................................. 299
14.3.4 Assembly ................................................................................................................. 300
14.3.5 Non-destructive testing of parent material................................................................. 301
14.3.6 Non-destructive testing of welds (NDT)..................................................................... 301
14.3.7 Shear stud welding................................................................................................... 308
14.4 WORKMANSHIP – BOLTING........................................................................................... 308
14.4.1 General.................................................................................................................... 308
14.4.2 Ordinary bolted assemblies ...................................................................................... 308
14.4.3 Pre-loaded bolt assemblies ...................................................................................... 310
14.5 WORKMANSHIP – ERECTION ........................................................................................ 311
14.5.1 Erection method statement....................................................................................... 311
14.5.2 Handling and storage ............................................................................................... 311
14.5.3 Damaged steelwork.................................................................................................. 312
14.5.4 Column base plates and slabs.................................................................................. 312
14.5.5 Grouting................................................................................................................... 312
14.5.6 Stability .................................................................................................................... 312
14.5.7 Alignment of part of the structure.............................................................................. 312
14.5.8 Temperature effects ................................................................................................. 312
14.5.9 Site welding.............................................................................................................. 312
14.5.10 Site bolting ............................................................................................................... 312
14.6 PROTECTIVE TREATMENT ............................................................................................ 313
14.6.1 General.................................................................................................................... 313
14.6.2 Materials .................................................................................................................. 313
14.6.3 Surface preparation.................................................................................................. 313
14.6.4 Sprayed metal coatings............................................................................................ 313
14.6.5 Hot-dip galvanizing................................................................................................... 314
14.6.6 Paint treatments....................................................................................................... 314
14.6.7 Inspection and testing............................................................................................... 314
15 ACCURACY OF FABRICATION AND ERECTION........................................................... 315
15.1 GENERAL........................................................................................................................ 315
15.2 PERMITTED DEVIATIONS IN THE CROSS SECTION OF ROLLED COMPONENTS......315
15.3 PERMITTED DEVIATIONS IN COMPONENTS AFTER FABRICATION........................... 316
15.3.1 Squareness of end not prepared for bearing............................................................. 316
15.3.2 Squareness of ends prepared for bearing................................................................. 316
15.3.3 Straightness of both axes or of individual webs of flanges......................................... 316
15.3.4 Length...................................................................................................................... 316
15.3.5 Curved or cambered................................................................................................. 316

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